Utilization of spermatozoa for fertility preservation 150 Recovery, preparation, storage and utilization of spermatozoa for fertility preservation in cancer patients and sub-fertile men

Sperm cryopreservation is an important part of an infertility program for patients undergoing infertility treatments, fertility assurance for vasectomy cases, and for fertility preservation due to cancer or other medical conditions. With recent developments in reproductive technology, even men with severely impaired sperm parameters can benefit from cryopreservation as procedures such as intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) require only a few sperm to achieve fertilization and pregnancy. The increasing success of cancer treatment and concerted efforts to ensure quality of life after successful treatment have placed great emphasis on the need to preserve the reproductive capability of young men. It is a highly effective method of protecting male fertility potential, and involves collection, freezing, and long-term storage of sperm. Based on the etiological condition of the patients, sperm can be collected by ejaculation or by surgical retrieval from epididymis or testes. The option to bank sperm should be offered systematically to all patients who may benefit. However, this is not a standard of practice yet; it may be overlooked due to lack of physician awareness regarding the need for fertility preservation and the effectiveness of this option, and/or overestimating the limitations of poor baseline sperm quality leading physician to view cryopreservation as futile. Failure to offer cryopreservation ignores the only possible reproductive option available to certain patients. J. Reprod Stem Cell Biotechnol 1(2):150-168 The authors have no potential conflicts of interest, whether of a financial or other nature Correspondence: A Ahmady2,3, PhD, HCLD; [email protected]; T: (216) 844-3317; F: (216) 201-4398 Sperm banking & cryopreservation Cryopreservation of human semen is an important procedure used regularly for different purposes, including donor insemination and the preservation of gametes in patients undergoing gonadotoxic treatment. Conception can be difficult even for some fertile couples for a variety of reasons and cryopreservation may be beneficial for them. Sperm banking allows men to protect their future fertility. There is a limited use of semen cryopreservation by physicians in the majority of IVF programs. This leads to an inability to improve care for patients that could benefit from this technology (AbdelHafez et al. 2009). Physicians have certain doubts about the justification of banking sperm before chemotherapy. Few patients (less than 510%) who bank sperm before cancer treatment return for infertility treatments, and about half of these patients have successful outcomes. Recovery of spermatogenesis, death, and anxiety regarding ART, financial considerations, and uncertainty about long term prognosis are just a few reasons why patients who cryopreserve do not return for infertility treatment (Hourvitz et al. 2008). Men suffering with cancer, azoospermia, and other infertility problems have the option to cryopreserve their sperm. However, cryopreservation has the ability to impair sperm motility, vitality, and acrosome integrity (Esteves et al. 2000a) . There is continuous research involving improvement of the various methods of cryopreservation and cryoprotectants. A. Relevance to modern medicine/ and today’s world Advanced assisted reproductive techniques help millions of people suffering from sexual dysfunction, cancer and those undergoing gonadal surgery. These techniques have Utilization of spermatozoa for fertility preservation 151 given these people a chance to realize their fertility potential. The sperm banks provide extended storage that allows sufficient time to perform screening on the donor. The developments made in intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) and gamete isolation and maturation have promoted interest in cryopreservation of gonadal tissue which appears highly promising for fertility treatments. Cryopreservation has numerous advantages but also significant challenges make it an active area of research (Bagchi et al. 2008). The changing attitude towards sexuality has achieved a wider social phenomenon that has changed the behavior as well as ideas concerning reproduction and associated techniques (Mori 2008). B. Need for increased awareness by Oncologists: Oncologists need to know about the regional availability of gamete cryopreservation facilities. Physicians also need to be willing to discuss the issue of cryopreservation with the patient and his family. In the era of ICSI when only a few sperm are needed to achieve fertilization and pregnancy, even men with severely impaired sperm parameters will benefit from sperm cryopreservation and should be encouraged to do so (Hourvitz et al. 2008). There is limited use of cryopreservation by urologists and gynaecologists in the majority of IVF programs. There is a lack of information regarding the effectiveness of gamete cryopreservation and a lack of agreement on the best universal method. Unfortunately, this is a missed opportunity to improve care for patients that could benefit from this technology. C. Need for increased awareness among patients There is a lack of education/counselling by the health care professionals (Hallak et al. 1999a). It is of crucial importance that all newly diagnosed male cancer patients be advised to cryopreserve their sperm at the earliest stage and most importantly before starting treatment. Although many cancer patients have poor pre-treatment semen quality, most have suitable sperm for freezing with good expectations for sperm survival. All young males 12 years of age or older should be offered the opportunity to bank their sperm prior to administration of any treatment which likely have adverse effect on the spermatogenesis process (Bonetti et al. 2009). Semen cryopreservation should be performed before cancer treatment begins, and it is preferable that multiple samples are preserved. All males of reproductive age should consider banking semen samples before undergoing any type of chemotherapy or radiation therapy, and physicians should always provide them with the education they need to decide for or against cryopreservation. Sperm banking can be a difficult subject to discuss with young patients and their parents because of sensitive topics such as developing sexuality, the grief associated with facing infertility as a side effect, and masturbation as a means of collecting a sample, but it is still very important to preserve the reproductive future of the patient if possible (Menon et al. 2009a). This study suggested that the majority of physicians and about half of the patients preferred to have initial discussions about sperm banking without the patient’s parents present (de Vries et al. 2009). Semen cryopreservation is the standard of care for these individuals. Failure to offer this option ignores the patient’s only reproductive option (Hourvitz et al. 2008). Indications of sperm banking A. Couples who can benefit from sperm banking Couples undergoing fertility treatment can benefit from cryopreservation if the male partner is not available at the time of the ovulation process. The success rates with cryopreserved sperm for intra-uterine insemination (IUI) and ICSI cycles are similar to those with fresh sperm. The recommendation is to have the male partners with oligoasthenzoospermia to bank multiple samples so that the samples can be used for repeat cycles in case of failed cycles of IUI or ICSI. i. Absent male partner Fertile couples may use sperm cryopreservation for a number of reasons. If either the male or female partner is often absent, for example, when travelling for business, the couple may find conception difficult. It may be hard for the couple to Utilization of spermatozoa for fertility preservation 152 coincide intercourse with ovulation. Cryopreservation of sperm may be convenient for the couple, allowing the woman to receive the male’s sperm in a clinical setting when she is ovulating. ii. Participating in ART About 12% of couples are unable to conceive after one year of unprotected intercourse and are therefore considered infertile (Eisenberg et al. 2009). About 3040% of these couples cannot conceive because the male partner has infertility issues, and 10% of male factor infertility is caused by azoospermia. In the most severe cases of male infertility, couples may decide to use a sperm donor (AbdelHafez et al. 2009). B. Cancer patients The various gonadotoxic treatments can have differential effects on spermatogenesis and sperm quality in patients with diverse types of cancers. A European study observed that the incidence of testicular cancer has doubled in the past 20 years, and the incidence of germline testicular cancers increased drastically from 1967 to 1987, as well as 1987 to 1996 (Lacerda et al. 2009). Between 15-30% of male patients undergoing gonadotoxic treatments do not regain their fertility (Menon et al. 2009a). Approximately 90% of men with testicular cancer ranked fertility as an important issue after cancer treatment (Bonetti et al. 2009). Both male and female cancer survivors report a large degree of stress regarding their own ability to reproduce (de Vries et al. 2009), which can have a high impact on one’s quality of life. Each year, approximately 1.3 million patients are diagnosed with cancer in the United States, with an average 5-year survival rate of 60%, resulting in about 9.8 million cancer survivors. Today, the cure rate for testicular cancer, Hodgkin’s disease, lymphoma, and leukaemia can be as high as 90% (Bonetti et al. 2009). Patients receiving radiotherapy are at high risk for developing infertility, and cancer surgery can reduce sperm concentration and cause erectile dysfunction or dry ejaculation. Full recovery can be achieved in the majority of these patients; so many recent efforts have been concentrated on reducing the morbidity associated with gonadotoxic treatments (Hallak et al. 1999b). Hodgkin’s disease, testicular cancer, leukaemia, and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma are the most common malignancies seen in the male reproductiveage group (Hourvitz et al. 2008). Analysis of covariance of semen parameters showed the greatest impairment in prostate cancer patients. Testicular cancer patients had relatively lower sperm counts but relatively good motility. Men with lymphomas and other systemic (non-reproductive) cancers have relatively normal semen parameters. Testicular cancer (Audrins et al. 1999; Berthelsen 1984; Botchan et al. 1997b) and lymphoma (Botchan et al. 1997a, Chapman et al. 1981) have been associated with impaired sperm quality. Padron et al. (1997) have shown similar semen quality in men with Hodgkin’s disease, leukaemia, and testicular cancer. Several of the most common malignancies in men of reproductive age have good longterm survival rates, for example, testicular cancer and Hodgkin’s disease (Howell and Shalet 2001). However, antineoplastic therapy is associated with significant morbidity, and testicular dysfunction is among the most common long-term side effects of cytotoxic chemotherapy in men. The degree to which testicular function is affected is dose and agent dependent (Palermo et al. 1992). Alkylating agents (e.g., cyclophosphamide and busulfan) and ionizing radiation frequently induce azoospermia, rendering the patient infertile. Another major reason to freeze sperm before treatment is the concern for potential chromosomal aberrations in sperm exposed to chemotherapy (Lass et al. 2001). Although no increase in malformation rate has been reported in children born to patients who have had chemotherapy or radiotherapy, the available data and followup are still limited and these children should be closely monitored. Semen parameters in patients with lymphomas and all other systemic malignancies were associated with better semen profile than in patients with testicular or prostate carcinoma (Hourvitz et al. 2008). After receiving cancer treatment, 77.8% of patients became azoospermic, Utilization of spermatozoa for fertility preservation 153 which emphasizes the importance of early